pH Indicators (Litmus, Phenol Red, Universal Indicator)

Litmus

There are two types of Litmus Paper: Red and Blue. Red Litmus Paper turns blue when it is dipped in a solution of pH 8.3 or more (stronger alkalis), and Blue Litmus Paper turns red when dipped in a solution of pH 4.5 or less (stronger acids)

Phenol Red

Phenol Red turns yellow when it is dipped in a solution of pH 6.6 or less (stronger acids), and turns fuschia when dipped in a solution of pH 8.0 or more (stronger alkali)

Universal Indicator

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Evidence for Evolution

• Fossil Record
  • Shows Change
    • Simple –> Complex
    • Aquatic –> Terrestrial
  • Major “groups” evolving to others (fossils showing mid-change creatures)
    • Fish –> Amphibians
    • Reptiles –> Birds
• Comparative Anatomy (Homologous Structures)
  • Vertebrate forelimbs (pentadactyl limb – penta: five, dactyl: finger)
  • Similar pattern implies this structure has been inherited through a common ancestry in amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals
• Biochemistry
  • The longer the time since there was a common ancestor, the more mutation (differences in the base sequence/amino acid sequence) have accumulated.
• Biogeography
  • Ratites
    • Common ancestor across Gondwana
    • When Gondwana separated, the isolated populations evolved into different species (emu, ostrich, rhea, kiwi, cassowary)

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pH Reactions – Blowing into Water

When universal indicator is placed into water, it displays a pH of roughly 7. When one blows through a straw into the water, the pH drops to 6. This is because of the Carbon Dioxide the action of blowing into the water adds to the solution.

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Volta and Galvani

Volta

• Full name Count Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta
• Italian physicist, famous for the invention of the electric cell
• Invented the electrophorus, a device used to create static electricity
• Investigated the reaction of gases such as methane with an electric spark
• Named electric charges V and Q, and stated that in any given object they are proportionate
• Stated that a frog’s leg (the salty fluids within) was a conductor and detector of electricity

Galvani

• Full name Luigi Galvani
• Italian physicist
• Conducted the famous frog’s leg experiment, where he touched a frog’s leg with two pieces of metal, and observed it twitch
• His experiments led to the invention of the metallic arc
• Proposed (incorrectly) that electricity was the essence of life

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The Battle of Britain

Operation Sea Lion

• Was the German codename for the Invasion of Britain
• To consist of a channel crossing by small boats guarded by Luftwaffe (airforce)
• In reality this was not feasible as there were not enough craft (boats)
• Reliant on the Luftwaffe to smash Britain’s air force
• Due to the failure of the Germans to completely destroy the British at Dunkirk

The Luftwaffe

• A highly advanced air force with combat experience in the Spanish Civil War (1936-9)
• Excellent modern fighter air craft like the Me 109
• Large number of aircraft in its inventory but many were slow bombers without radar

The RAF

• Benefited from their development of the radar network
• Modern fighters like the Spitfire and the more numerous Hurricane
• Well organised defensive plan for air attack
• Reliance on other nationalities for pilot recruitment and training
• Not enough fighters and pilots

The RAF Commanders

• Air Chief Marshall Hugh Dowding
• Air Vice Marshall Keith Park
• Air Vice Marshall Leigh Mallory

The Luftwaffe Commanders

• Reichsmarshcall Herman Goering
• Generalfeldmarschall Albert Kesselring
• Generalfeldmarschall  Hugo Sperll

RAF Fighter Control System

• For the time this was a very sophisticated integrated air defense system
• Utilising mordern technology in the form of radar
• Defensive sections with their own HQ and one central HQ co-ordinating the overall defense

Why the Germans Lost the Battle of Britain

• The Germans fought too far away from their bases so that refuelling and rearming were impossible. The German fighters had a very limited time they could spend over Britain
• British fighters could land, refuel and rearm quickly
• The change of targets was crucial; it is now believed that Fighter Command was only 24 hours away from defeat when the targets were changed from the airfields to London and Coventry
• The Hurricane and the Spitfire were exceptional planes – capable of taking on the Luftwaffe

Statistics

• 2 353 British pilots served
• 574 overseas pilots served for Britain
• 544 British pilots were killed
• 27 450 Civilians were killed
• 3 000 Luftwaffe personnel were killed
• 1 547 RAF planes were lost (1 023 fighters, 524 bombers)
• 1 887 Luftwaffe planes were lost (873 fighters, 1 014 bombers)

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5 Big Concepts on Gender

Concept 1

All men are the same sex, but they all express gender a little differently. In a group of men, there are as many different versions of gender as there are men.

Concept 2

Gender is learned. It is learned from parents, family, peers, the media and their education.

Concept 3

Gender can change – and can be adopted consciously or unconsciously by men and women. Sometimes people do what they see, and sometimes people decide not to do what they see.

Concept 4

Gender is not fixed in a person’s life. It can change quite radically based on personal experiences and beliefs.

Concept 5

Gender can be a way of achieving status, but it is culturally specific. What once seemed suitable and admirable may now seem silly or unadmirable.

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Rate of Reaction

• Different chemical reactions take place at different speeds
• Many, particularly those involving solutions, seem to take place instantaneously
• Others take rather longer; the conversion of plant material to coal can take millions of years
• As the reaction progresses, the concentration of the reactants decreases, and that of the products increases, but continuous measurements of concentration is not easy
• Quantities that can be measured without too much difficulty as the reaction proceeds include such things as the volume of gas given off, the change in mass when a gas is given off, and the change in intensity of a colour (of a reactant of the product)

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Causes for World War II

Treaty of Versailles

Left the Germans angry and bitter, eager for revenge. The Allies forced the Germans to accept heavy territorial losses, huge reparations, blame for the war and disarmament. Here was the basis for another war.

The League of Nations

Set up to keep world peace but was weak and ineffective. Japan’s invasion of Manchuria and Italy’s attack on Abyssinia showed the league as useless. The failure of the World Disarmament Conference, organised by the League, was also a grave disappointment.

The Great Depression

Shattered the prosperity and goodwill of the late 1920s. The Germans turned to Adolf Hitler who promised to turn over the Treaty of Versailles and make Germany great again. In Japan a government decided the answer to the depression was to expand overseas to Manchuria. Even Mussolini’s invasion of Abyssinia was in part an attempt to take the Italians’ minds away from there economic troubles.

Hitler

From the very beginning Hitler intended a major war. The moves into the Rhineland, Austria and Czechoslovakia were all steps in a plan to eventually invade Poland and Russia. In fact the whole of Germany was geared towards war.

Appeasement

A French force could have easily stopped German troops from marching into Rhineland in 1936. By giving in to Hitler, Britain and France encouraged him to demand more and more territory. When it came to Poland in 1939 Hitler was convinced Britain and France would once again give in. Chamberlain should have backed the Czechs at Munich. Czechoslovakia was militarily strong and would have proved a much more useful ally than did Poland in 1939.

The Transformation of Sydney

A Product of:

• Globalisation: The OPEC crisis of 1974 triggered a New International Division of Labour which resulted in many industries shifting offshore to low labour cost nations of Asia. This was accompanied by the deregulation of banking which allowed capital to flow freely around the world facilitating TNCs setting up branch plants for manufacturing overseas.
• Technological innovations in transport and communications, e.g: large ships, containerization,  computers
• Increasing environmental awareness requiring stricter control of pollution

Sydney, the Industrial City (Pre 1990s)

• Port function: the wharves, warehouses and rail lines of Port Jackson served to ship exports of commodities overseas (e.g: wool, sugar, wheat) and receive imports
• The industrial suburbs of the inner-western suburbs were the site for factories and power stations. Sugar was refined and was milled prior to exportation
• The inner-mixed zone was also home to the inner factory (blue collar) worker

Sydney the World City

• Regional offices for TNCs that operate in the Asia Pacific Region
• Centre for banking
• ASX links Australia to 24 hour trading
• Provision of advanced corporate services (e.g: accounting, advertising, auditing)
• Cultural authority (e.g: sport, entertainment, fashion, theatre)

Pathogens

Bacteria

• Prokaryotic (cells with no nucleus)
• Gram positive or gram negative (indicate different cell wall chemicals)
• Some produce toxins and secrete them (endotoxins) e.g: tetanus
• Others breed up in large numbers and when they die they release endotoxins
• Respond to antibiotics

Fungi

• Eucaryotic (have a nucleus)
• For example yeast, thrush, tinea, condidious, ringworm

Protozoa

• Eucaryotic (have a nucleus)
• Malaria is caused by a parasite called plasmodium